THE ROLE OF SNAKES IN ECOSYSTEM AND ENTERPRISE DEVELOPMENT, A CASE STUDY OF SNAKE PARK, NAIROBI NATIONAL MUSEUM
DECLARATION AND RECOMMENDATION
DECLARATION
This project proposal is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university.
NAME: GRACE W. NDUNGU
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Date.
RECOMMENDATION
This proposal has been submitted to the department of natural resource with the approval of my supervisor.
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Date.
ABSTRACT
Even though snakes have always been antagonistic, most of them are innocuous and of great benefit. Human beings rely explicitly or indirectly on the resources rendered by the ecosystem; hence, living in an environment with a balanced and robust environment has several advantages.
Snakes play an integral part in keeping the equilibrium in the environment robust and healthier. We will have a healthier economy with various food products and medicinal technology advances thanks to biodiversity and natural ecosystems. This research is designed to define and explain the positions snakes perform in creating ecosystems and businesses. Snakes kept hostage perform many roles; they are used for amusement or leisure activities, study and education purposes, and research purposes. Nairobi Snake Park being part of the tourism sector helps boost the country’s economy through foreign exchange and job opportunities. Tourists who visit the snake park for any of the above reasons are charged an entry fee that can be used to develop a nation. In addition, snakes are a key component of the pet sector, with a worldwide value of 72 billion dollars.
This study entails collecting data by various approaches such as interviews, evaluation, and photography. The results will be presented in tables and charts.
List of acronyms
NSP– Nairobi Snake Park
ED– Enterprise development
GDP-Gross domestic product
NNM- Nairobi national museum
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background information
Reptiles constitute a high percentage of the world’s species diversity. Snakes underclass reptilian are widely distributed throughout the earth biomes except for the polar region because of their ectothermic nature; hence they cannot live in a very cold environment. More than 3000 snake species exist, where about 600 are venomous and about 200 non-venomous (Bradford, 2014). (Thomson, 2003 ), there are about six snake species among the forty-six genera in Kenya, with at least 106 snake species.
Snakes inhabit different habitats; for example, they live in deserts, forests, swamps, grasslands, and when the weather is too cold, they tend to hibernate in tunnels underground. Snakes can either be venomous or non-venomous. Some lay eggs like about 70%, while 30% give birth to live young ones. Those that are malicious use their venom to kill their prey and also use it for defense. Non-venomous snakes constrict their prey to death and swallow it whole.
Snakes have always been a symbol of fear to many people, and their sight always instills fear, and some people go to the extent of killing them whenever they come across one. However, snakes play a vital role in keeping the equilibrium of the ecosystem. The roles they play in ecosystem benefits human being either directly or indirectly for example by killing rodents and insects in stores and crops. Snakeskins are used in; tourism attractions, making shoes, handbags, and other articles. Their venom is used in producing life-saving anti-venom and is also used in biomedical research. In countrys like India, China, and Africa, some snake species are used as a source of meat (Ol. Fung et al., 2009). Some snake species, especially the harmless ones, e.g., ball python, are kept as pets (Ndonga & Haruna, 2015). According to WHO 2010, in some areas, snake species are used for reverence and even worship.
Nairobi Snake Park, which was established back in 1961, has become one of the most popular tourist destinations in Nairobi, where it leads in animal attraction and research center for reptiles and snake breeding. Snakes held captive are used for different purposes like education, entertainment, and research. Nairobi Snake Park helps boost our country’s economy as there is a foreign exchange from tourists outside Kenya who visit the park for different purposes. It also boosts the economy by creating job opportunities for experts in reptiles and amphibians who know about tourism. More than 10,000 visitors per year come to pay a visit to the park (Iha et al., 1975). Snakes are of great importance in the ecosystem as well as in boosting a nation’s economy. Therefore, they need to be protected in order to prevent their extinction.
1.2 Statement of the problem
Snakes in their natural habitat and those confined are important to us as human beings because they ensure a balance in the ecosystem and helps in the economic development of a nation, such as creating job opportunities in snake parks that benefit people living in that nation.
Even if snakes are very important, they face many threats like habitat destruction, the introduction of invasive species, pollution of the environment, and climate change, leading to the extinction of some snake species. Furthermore, when there is a decrease in several snakes and the extinction of some snake species, there will be an imbalance in the food web as snakes can either be predators or prey in a food web. In addition, the decrease or extinction of snake species will affect the economy because, for example, there are those types of snake species that attract tourists, and when they become extinct, tourists might not visit, and people employed in snake parks might lose their job.
1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 Broad objective
To study the role of snakes in ecosystem and enterprise development.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
To identify snake species found in Nairobi Snake Park
To assess recreational services as provided by confined snakes
To evaluate how confined snakes help in economic or enterprise development
To determine challenges facing snakes
1.4 Research questions
Which type of snake species are found in Nairobi Snake Park?
How do confined snakes provide recreation or entertainment?
How do confined snakes help in economic development?
What are the challenges facing snakes?
1.5 Justification
There has been a decrease in the number of snake species because of human activities like clearing land for agriculture, increasing the human population, which leads to clearing of wildlife habitats to enlarge settlement and urban development, which threaten the survival of wildlife species through destruction of their habitat.
Many people have no idea of the importance of snakes, and most of them kill them whenever they come across one on their way. However, snakes are very important in the food web as they act as predators or prey; for example, some snakes feed on other snakes while others feed on animals like rats and rodents. By feeding on rats and rodents, there is a decrease in damages on crops caused by rats and rodents. They also control diseases, such as feeding on mice host to black-legged ticks where those ticks are a vector for Lyme disease, a bacterial infection. If an ecosystem lack snakes, the number of prey will increase to unnatural levels, and those animals that feed on snakes will strain to find food.
Confined snakes help in educational purposes, recreational purposes, and research purposes. They also help develop a country by creating job opportunities in the parks where they are confined. Also, when tourists visit those parks, they pay a certain sum of many, which are used to boost the economy. During the financial year 2009/2010, approximately 123000 visitors visited Nairobi Snake Park (URL). This means that despite snakes being feared by many people, they are of great importance, and people should be educated on their importance and how to handle them. This study will help people to understand the importance of snakes so that they can protect them.
1.6 Scope of the study
This study will be carried out in NSP, where we have different snake species, both dangerous and harmless, crocodiles, giant snails, baboon spiders, frogs, and birds. NSP is located in Nairobi city leads in animal attraction and research center for reptiles and breeding of snakes. Different types of snake species will be identified, the flow of visitors in the park will be analyzed, and a look at whether there are any challenges facing snakes.
1.7 Limitations and delimitation of the study
This study might face some challenges like lack of enough time to collect data, inadequate funds to fund the study, and recent document information regarding Nairobi Snake Park. These challenges can be minimized by utilizing the little time one has in order to be able to collect data. One can also ensure that during interviews will be able to capture the most relevant information about the park.
1.8 Definition of terms
Ecosystem:It is a community or a group of living organisms interacting in a specific environment.
Enterprise development: is taking small business ideas and growing them into something big, making more money, earning more profits, and employing many people as time goes by.
Gross domestic product: Is the total monetary or market value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country’s borders in a specific period.
Park: is an area of natural, semi-natural, or planted space set aside for human enjoyment and recreation or the protection of wildlife or natural habitats.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Classification of snakes
Snakes are classified in kingdom Animalia, class Reptilia, order Squamata, and phylum Chordata. Snakes are elongated, limbless, carnivorous of sub-order Serpentes. They are ectothermic vertebrates covered in overlapping scales (URL). Many snake species have skulls with several joints that enable them to swallow prey much larger than their heads with their highly mobile jaws. Snakes have forked tongues that they flick in different surroundings that let them know when danger or food is near (Omara, 2020). Snakes live in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and are predatory with a wide range of prey species (Nong’a & Haruna 2015).
Snakes tend to inhabit every part of the world except the polar region. Therefore, there are more than 3000 snake species globally (Nong’a & Haruna, 2015). In Kenya, there are more than 106 snake species (Thomson, 2003). Snakes can be categorized according to how they get their young ones, their prey, and their poison level. Many snakes have their young ones by laying eggs that are about 70% while the other 30% give birth to live young ones, and this is seen commonly in snakes that live in cold environments where eggs cannot get enough temperatures for them to be hatched. Some snakes are small in size while others are large; for example, the smallest snake is about 10cm (thread snake) while the largest is about 30 feet (reticulated python).
Snakes do not eat pests, but every snake has its preference; for example, gopher or bull snake mostly eat rodents and feed on birds, eggs, and some lizard. The rubber boas feed on other snakes, mice, birds, lizards, worms, slugs, and insects (Nonga & Haruna, 2015). Small snakes like the green, garter, and ring-necked snake eat insects. The hognose snake is known for its ability to puff up to scare off attackers and then feed on them, and if it does not work, feed on toads.
Some snakes are venomous while others are non-venomous, where the venomous snakes are about 600 in the world (Bolanos, 1972). Venomous snakes use their venom for hunting their prey, while the non-venomous snakes constrict their prey to death and swallow them whole. Venomous snakes not only use their venom for hunting but also use it for defense.
Examples of venomous snakes in Kenya include rattlesnakes, black mamba, puff adder, carpet viper, spitting cobra, boomslang, and many more (Omara,2020). Non-venomous snakes include boas, pythons, bull snakes, king snakes, and many more. NSP has various snake species, including puff adder, black mamba, the Egyptian cobra, African rock pythons, and Gabon viper.
2.2 Importance of snakes
Snakes maintain balance in the food web and play a crucial role in keeping equilibrium in the environment. Snakes are very important in the environment, and without them, the number of prey species would increase to unnatural levels, and the predators that feed on them will struggle to find food. They either act as prey or predator. By eating rats and mice, they reduce crop damage caused by rats and mice. They also serve as a food source for larger predators like hawks, herons, and carnivorous mammals like bobtails. Some snake species eat other snakes; for example, kingsnakes can eat a rattlesnake.
Snakeskins are used in tourism attractions, making shoes, handbags, and other articles. Their venom is used in producing life-saving anti-venom to treat snake bites (URL). In Asian countries such as Thailand, Indonesia, and Cambodia drinking the blood of snakes like cobra is believed to increase sexual virility/manhood (OI.Fung et al., 2009). Some snakes, especially harmless like ball python and corn snakes, are kept as pets in the western world (Nong’a & Haruna, 2015). Some snake species are used for reverence and even worship (WHO, 2010).
2.3 Snake park as a recreational center
Many people snake as a source of fear, and whenever seen, they trigger fear (Oshea, 2008). Media tend to portray a negative picture about snakes which results in a negative attitude towards them by both adult (Pandey et al., 2016) and children (Yorek, 2009), and this can result in people killing snakes whenever they come across one (Pandey et al., 2016). It has been evaluated that approximately one-third of encountered snakes are killed by local people (Whitaker & Shine, 2000). This negative attitude towards snakes varies depending on the country, and it can only be changed by the targeted educational programs (Ballouard et al., 2012, 2013). However, some people have a positive attitude towards snakes (Ballouard et al., 2013), and evidence shows how some people express their feelings towards some snake species’ beauty (Frynta et al., 2011). This feeling can bring about a positive emotion like joy (Kuhn & Gallinat, 2012).
A snake park having different confined snake species will attract these kinds of people interested in snakes. For example, more than 100000 visitors come to NSP annually (Iha et al., 1975). They either visit for entertainment purposes or education purposes or research purposes. About 123,000 visitors visited the snake park during the financial year 2009/2010. In the snake park, we have snakes, but other animals like crocodiles, lizards, turtles, local fish species, and birds attract tourists. The crocodile feeding sessions and octopus exhibit are some of the most common attractions in the snake park. In addition, snakes in zoos provide entertainment to visitors.
Nairobi Snake Park is of great importance to Nairobi residents as it assists in removing any spotted house snakes and gives advice on how they can minimize snakebites within their homes. In addition, they also provide snake species identification services which reduce the killing of snakes by Nairobi residents.
2.4 Economic or enterprise development
Globally, tourism sectors play a crucial role in boosting a nation’s economy as it is the second from agriculture in boosting a country’s economy. An increase in tourism flow brings positive economic outcomes to a nation, especially gross domestic product and employment opportunities. Tourism is a key foundation of a nation’s economic growth because it plays important roles like the advancement of the economy, promotion of peace, development of human resources, reducing poverty level, enhancement of job opportunities and earnings, which can be of great economic importance to local populations (Manyara & Jones, 2009). In many countries, the tourism sector remains an important source of employment and income to formal and informal sectors. Developing countries can get a huge amount of foreign exchange from the tourism industry, which they can use to boost their economic growth and development (Manzoor et al., 2019). Nairobi Snake Park is one of the tourism sectors that help boost our country’s economy through the foreign exchange from tourists who visit the park. The park also creates job opportunities by employing professions in the tourism sector, especially those with knowledge and skills in handling amphibians and reptiles. This can assist in the eradication of poverty in Kenya.
2.5 Challenges facing snakes
Like any other living animal, snakes face many challenges, whether in their natural habitats or captivity. According to Gibbons et al., 2000, one of the biggest challenges they face is habitat destruction due to an increase in the human population where they extend their settlement up to their settlement. Climate change and deforestation push snake out of their natural habitats into general pupation. This can lead to the killing of snakes and snakebites as snakes try to defend themselves. In Kenya, 15 to 25 Kenyans die daily due to snake envenomation, and more than 100 others have their limbs amputated, causing permanent disability (Omara, 2020). Other challenges that snakes face include diseases, over-harvesting, invasive species, and climate change. Because of the above challenges that face snakes, some species are about to be extinct.
Snakes held captive face many challenges as they have to adapt to a new environment, for example, with limited space, light, and temperature (Warwick et al., 2018). Those snakes undergo much stress, and some even try to escape (Arena et al., 2012). Other challenges experienced by snakes in captivity include;
Injuries- snakes, when introduced to a new environment, will always try to escape from their enclosure, and they can get bruises on their nose and front of their face.
Dystocia- this is a problem experienced by females where they cannot pass their eggs. This problem is usually caused by several factors, including poor husbandry, improper environmental lighting or temperature, inappropriate diet, inadequate nest site, and dehydration.
Anorexia is the lack of appetite and can be caused by a condition like reproduction, egg-bearing, or shedding. Other factors include inappropriate light, incorrect diet, stress caused by a change in environment.
Salmonella- is a disease caused by improper hygiene.
Other challenges may include abnormal swelling and masses, difficulty shedding, burns, bites and wounds, lack of mates (Hess & Axelson, 2021).
The scientific report emphasizes that snakes require much space as they actively seek and require much space to fully straighten their bodies as an essential requirement to satisfy the needs of snakes like; exercise, stress avoidance, disease control, preventing physical discomfort, and achievement of physical comfort (Asley & Jayne, 2007).
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Description of the study area/sites
Nairobi Snake Park is located adjacent to Nairobi National Museum and was started in 1961. NSP is partly housed in a small building with a central garden with a little set of trees, bushes, rocks, and a tiny pool with various reptilian species like lizards, harmless snakes, and tortoise moves. Inside the park, a collider is built as a display that houses more dangerous species like black and green mamba, cobras, gaboon vipers, and African adders.
3.2 Research design
The study will adopt a research design where interviews will be used to collect primary data. The information about common snake species challenges facing snakes and the flow of visitors in NSP will be collected and analyzed.
3.3 Sampling procedure
The research will use stratified random sampling, where the stratum will be selected using simple random sampling.
According to Yamane (1967), the formulae for calculating the sample size is;
n=N/1+N(e)2
Where; n=sample size N=population size e= level of precision i.e. 95%
3.4 Data collection
The research will use a different data collection method, including interviews, observation, and photography. Interviews will entail interviewing people working in NSP. Observation will entail looking at the snakes in the park and observing the flow of visitors visiting the park per day.
3.5 Reliability and validity of data
This will be achieved by seeking consent from respondents, assuring the respondent’s privacy, anonymity, avoiding exaggerations, providing incentives where necessary, and providing them with feedback on the results.
3.6 Data analysis
This means collecting, model, organize and analyze data to draw a helpful conclusion from it. Research findings will be studied, and dominant themes and conclusions made. Data from the field will be recorded in a data sheet before being transferred into a Microsoft excel datasheet for processing and analysis. SPSS and MS excel 2013 will be used to carry out statistical analysis, and descriptive statistics for various variables in each site will be presented in tables and pie charts.
3.7 Expected outcome
To create awareness to people on the importance of snakes, which so many people fear.
To come up with a research project that will be presented before the department for Bachelor of Science in Wildlife Enterprise and Management.
| TIME | |||||||
| ACTIVITY | Jan-Feb | Mar-May | June | July | Aug | ||
| Concept note | |||||||
| Proposal development | |||||||
| Submission of proposal | |||||||
| Pilot study | |||||||
| Data collection and analysis | |||||||
| Report writing | |||||||
| Presentation | |||||||
WORK PLAN
| ITEM | QUANTITY | PRICE | TOTAL AMOUNT IN CASH | |
| Proposal development | Internet bundles | 1 | 500 | 500 |
| Printing | 30 | 5 | 150 | |
| Binding | 1 | 50 | 50 | |
| Stationery | One each | 200 | 200 | |
| Subtotal | 900 | |||
| The pilot study, data collection, and analysis | Transport | 2 | 2000 | 4000 |
| Lunch | 2 | 200 | 400 | |
| SPSS
Consultation |
1 | 1300 | 1300
|
|
| Subtotal | 5700 | |||
| Report writing | Printing | 40 pages | 5 | 200 |
| Binding | 1 | 50 | 50 | |
| Internet bundles | 1 | 500 | 500 | |
| Subtotal | 750 | |||
| Contingency cost | 10% of the total | 735 | ||
| TOTAL | 8085 | |||
BUDGET
REFERENCE
Ballouard, J. M., Ajtic, R., Balint, H., Brito, J. C., Crnobrnja-Isailovic, J., Desmonts, D., … & Bonnet, X. (2013). Schoolchildren and one of the most unpopular animals: are they ready to protect snakes?. Anthrozos, 26(1), 93-109.
Bolaos, R. (1972). Toxicity of Costa Rican snake venoms for the white mouse. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, 21(3), 360-363.
Frynta, D., Mareov, J., ehkov-Petr, M., klba, J., umbera, R., & Krsa, A. (2011). Cross-cultural agreement in perception of animal beauty: boid snakes viewed by people from five continents. Human Ecology, 39(6), 829-834.
Iha, J., Maikweki, J., Cheptumo, M. & MacKay, A. (1976). The snake park. Kenya Past and Present, 7(1), 19-30.
Khn, S., & Gallinat, J. (2012). The neural correlates of subjective pleasantness. Neuroimage, 61(1), 289-294.
Hess, L., & Axelson, R. (2021). Challenges facing snakes, retrieved from https://Vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/snakes-problems accessed 18th May 2021.
Manyara, G., & Jones, E. (2007). Community-based tourism enterprises development in Kenya: An exploration of their potential as avenues of poverty reduction. Journal of sustainable tourism, 15(6), 628-644.
Manzoor, F., Wei, L., & Asif, M. (2019). The contribution of sustainable tourism to economic growth and employment in Pakistan. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(19), 3785.
Mullin, S. J., & Seigel, R. A. (Eds.). (2009). Snakes: ecology and conservation. Cornell University Press.
Nonga, H. E., & Haruna, A. (2015). Assessment of human-snake interaction and its outcomes in Monduli District, northern Tanzania. Tanzania Journal of Health Research, 17(1).
Oi-Fung, W., Hin-Tat, F., Shing-Kit-Tommy, L., Ka-Keunga, L., Chak-Wah, K. & Simpson, I.D. (2009) A preliminary survey of Hong Kong snake shops and the potential snake bite risks for the healthcare system. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 103,931-936.
Omara, T. (2020). Plants used in anti-venom therapy in rural Kenya: Ethnobotany and future perspectives. Journal of Toxicology, 2020.
Pandey, D. P., Pandey, G. S., Devkota, K., & Goode, M. (2016). Public perceptions of snakes and snakebite management: implications for conservation and human health in southern Nepal. Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine, 12(1), 1-25.
Thomson, N. (2003). Science education researchers as orthographers: Documenting Keiyo (Kenya) knowledge, learning, and narratives about snakes. International Journal of Science Education, 25(1), 89-115.
Warwick, C., Arena, P., & Steedman, C. (2019). Spatial considerations for captive snakes. Journal of veterinary behavior, 30, 37-48.
Whitaker, P. B., & Shine, R. (2000). Sources of mortality of large elapid snakes in an agricultural landscape. Journal of Herpetology, 121-128.
WHO. (2010) Guidelines for the prevention and clinical management of snakebite in Africa. World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa, Brazzaville, 145 pp.
Williams, D. J., O’SHEA, M. A. R. K., Daguerre, R. L., Pook, C. E., Wuester, W., Hayden, C. J., … & Austin, C. C. (2008). Origin of the eastern brownsnake, Pseudonaja textilis (Dumril, Bibron and Dumril)(Serpentes: Elapidae: Hydrophiinae) in New Guinea: evidence of multiple dispersals from Australia, and comments on the status of Pseudonaja textilis pughi Hoser 2003. Zootaxa, 1703(1), 47-61.
Yorek, N. (2009). The only good snake is a dead snake: secondary school students’ attitudes toward snakes. Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment, 23(sup1), 31-35.
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